{"id":608,"date":"2018-07-23T22:34:06","date_gmt":"2018-07-23T17:04:06","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/knowledgekart.in\/blog\/?p=608"},"modified":"2020-02-17T16:34:34","modified_gmt":"2020-02-17T11:04:34","slug":"chronology-of-indian-history-all-what-you-need-to-know-for-upsc-ssc-pcs","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/knowledgekart.in\/blog\/chronology-of-indian-history-all-what-you-need-to-know-for-upsc-ssc-pcs\/","title":{"rendered":"Chronology of Indian History All What You Need To Know For UPSC, SSC, PCS"},"content":{"rendered":"

Chronology of Indian History All What You Need To Know For UPSC, SSC, PCS and Others Competative Exams.<\/h2>\n
\"Chronology<\/a>
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James Mill<\/a> (1773\u20131836), in his The History of British India<\/a> (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised for the misconceptions it gave rise to. Another influential periodisation is the division into “ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods”, although this periodisation has also been criticised.<\/sup><\/p>\n

Romila Thapar notes that the division into Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to “ruling dynasties and foreign invasions”,<\/sup> neglecting the social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity. The division into Ancient-Medieval-Modern periods overlooks the fact that the Muslim conquests occurred gradually during which time many things came and went off, while the south was never completely conquered. According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on “significant social and economic changes”, which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers<\/p>\n

Prehistoric era (until c. 3300 BCE)<\/span><\/h2>\n

Stone Age<\/span><\/h3>\n

Archaeological evidence of anatomically modern humans<\/a> in the Indian subcontinent is claimed to be as old as 78,000\u201374,000 years.|<\/sup><\/sup> Earlier hominids include Homo erectus<\/a><\/i> from about 500,000 years ago.<\/sup> Isolated remains of Homo erectus<\/a><\/i> in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley<\/a> in central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene<\/a> era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago. Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia’s oldest settlements and some of its major civilisations.<\/p>\n

The earliest archaeological site in the Indian subcontinent is the Palaeolithic hominid<\/a> site in the Soan River valley<\/a>. Soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region<\/a> across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal.<\/sup> The Mesolithic<\/a> period in the Indian subcontinent was followed by the Neolithic<\/a> period, when more extensive settlement of the Indian subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age<\/a> approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed semi-permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Bhimbetka rock shelters<\/a> in modern Madhya Pradesh<\/a>, India. The Edakkal Caves<\/a> are pictorial writings believed to date to at least 6,000\u00a0BCE, from the Neolithic<\/a> man, indicating the presence of a prehistoric civilisation or settlement in Kerala<\/a>. The Stone Age<\/a> carvings of Edakkal are rare and are the only known examples from South India<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Traces of a Neolithic culture have been alleged to be submerged in the Gulf of Khambat<\/a> in India, radiocarbon dated<\/a> to 7500\u00a0BCE.<\/sup> Neolithic agricultural cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 5000\u00a0BCE, in the lower Gangetic valley around 3000\u00a0BCE, represented by the Bhirrana<\/a> findings (7570\u20136200\u00a0BCE) in Haryana, India<\/a>, Lahuradewa<\/a> findings (7000 BCE) in Uttar Pradesh, India<\/a>,[58]<\/a><\/sup> and Mehrgarh<\/a> findings (7000\u20135000\u00a0BCE) in Balochistan, Pakistan<\/a>; and later in Southern India, spreading southwards and also northwards into Malwa<\/a> around 1800\u00a0BCE. The first urban civilisation of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilisation<\/a>.<\/p>\n

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“First urbanisation” (c. 3300 \u2013 c. 1500 BCE)<\/span><\/h2>\n

Indus Valley Civilisation<\/span><\/h3>\n

The Bronze Age<\/a> in the Indian subcontinent<\/a> began around 3300\u00a0BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilisation. It was centred on the Indus River<\/a> and its tributaries which extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River<\/a> valley, the Ganges-Yamuna Doab<\/a>,<\/sup> Gujarat<\/a>, and south-eastern Afghanistan. The Indus civilisation is one of three in the ‘Ancient East’ that, along with Mesopotamia<\/a> and Pharonic Egypt<\/a>, was a cradle of civilisation<\/a> in the Old World. It is also the most expansive in area and population.<\/p>\n

The civilisation was primarily located in modern-day India (Gujarat<\/a>, Haryana<\/a>, Punjab<\/a>, Rajasthan<\/a>, Uttar Pradesh<\/a>, Jammu and Kashmir<\/a> provinces) and Pakistan (Sindh<\/a>, Punjab<\/a>, and Balochistan<\/a> provinces). Historically part of Ancient India<\/a>, it is one of the world’s earliest urban civilisations, along with Mesopotamia<\/a> and Ancient Egypt<\/a>.Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.<\/p>\n

The Mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900\u00a0BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. The civilisation included urban centres such as Dholavira<\/a>, Kalibangan<\/a>, Ropar<\/a>, Rakhigarhi<\/a>, and Lothal<\/a> in modern-day India, as well as Harappa<\/a>, Ganeriwala<\/a>, and Mohenjo-daro<\/a> in modern-day Pakistan. The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multi-storeyed houses and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation. Total of 1,022 cities and settlements had been found,<\/sup> mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers, and their tributaries; of which 406 sites are in Pakistan and 616 sites in India, of these 96 have been excavated.<\/p>\n

During the late period<\/a> of this civilisation, signs of a gradual decline<\/a> began to emerge, and by around 1700\u00a0BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and some elements of the Indus Civilisation may have survived, especially in the smaller villages and isolated farms. According to historian Upinder Singh<\/a>, “the general picture presented by the late Harappan phase is one of a breakdown of urban networks and an expansion of rural ones.” The Indian Copper Hoard Culture<\/a> is attributed to this time, associated in the Doab region with the Ochre Coloured Pottery<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Dravidian origins<\/span><\/h3>\n
Main articles: Proto-Dravidian<\/a>, Dravidian people<\/a>, Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit<\/a>, and Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia<\/a><\/div>\n

Linguists hypothesized that Dravidian-speaking people were spread throughout the Indian subcontinent<\/a> before a series of Indo-Aryan migrations. In this view, the early Indus Valley civilisation<\/a> is often identified as having been Dravidian. Cultural and linguistic similarities have been cited by researchers Henry Heras<\/a>, Kamil Zvelebil<\/a>, Asko Parpola<\/a> and Iravatham Mahadevan<\/a> as being strong evidence for a proto-Dravidian origin of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation.<\/sup> Linguist Asko Parpola writes that the Indus script and Harappan language “most likely to have belonged to the Dravidian family”. Parpola led a Finnish team in investigating the inscriptions using computer analysis. Based on a proto-Dravidian assumption, they proposed readings of many signs, some agreeing with the suggested readings of Heras and Knorozov (such as equating the “fish” sign with the Dravidian word for fish “min”) but disagreeing on several other readings. A comprehensive description of Parpola’s work until 1994 is given in his book Deciphering the Indus Script<\/i>. The discovery in Tamil Nadu of a late Neolithic (early 2nd millennium BCE, i.e. post-dating Harappan decline) stone celt<\/a> allegedly marked with Indus signs has been considered by some to be significant for the Dravidian identification. While, Yuri Knorozov<\/a> surmised that the symbols represent a logosyllabic<\/a> script and suggested, based on computer analysis, an underlying agglutinative Dravidian<\/a> language as the most likely candidate for the underlying language. Knorozov’s suggestion was preceded by the work of Henry Heras, who suggested several readings of signs based on a proto-Dravidian assumption. While some scholars like J. Bloch and M. Witzel<\/a> believe that the Indo-Aryans moved into an already Dravidian speaking area after the oldest parts of the Rig Veda<\/a> were already composed. The Brahui<\/a> population of Balochistan<\/a> has been taken by some as the linguistic equivalent of a relict<\/a> population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo-Aryan languages.<\/p>\n

Vedic period (c. 1500 \u2013 c. 600 BCE)<\/span><\/h2>\n

The Vedic period<\/a> is named after the Indo-Aryan<\/a> culture of north-west India, although other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity during this period. The Vedic culture is described in the texts of Vedas<\/a>, still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit<\/a>. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India.The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500\u00a0BCE, contributed the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent. In terms of culture, many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic<\/a> to the Iron Age<\/a> in this period.<\/p>\n

Vedic society<\/span><\/h3>\n

Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region<\/a> and the upper Gangetic Plain<\/a>.Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration<\/a> into the Indian subcontinent from the north-west. The peepal<\/a> tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda<\/a>. Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy<\/a> espoused later, like dharma<\/a>, trace their roots to Vedic antecedents.<\/p>\n

Early Vedic society is described in the Rigveda<\/a>, the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during 2nd millennium BCE, in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. At this time, Aryan society consisted of largely tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned. The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture<\/a> in archaeological contexts.<\/p>\n

At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society began to expand from the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, into the western Ganges<\/a> plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four varnas<\/a><\/i>, or social classes. This social structure was characterised both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India, but also eventually by the excluding of some indigenous peoples by labeling their occupations impure.<\/sup> During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into Janapadas (monarchical, state-level polities)<\/a>.[99]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

In the 14th century BCE,[100]<\/a><\/sup> the Battle of the Ten Kings<\/a>, between the Puru<\/a> Vedic Aryan<\/a> tribal kingdoms of the Bharatas<\/a>, allied with other tribes of the Northwest India<\/a>, guided by the royal sage Vishvamitra<\/a>, and the Trtsu-Bharata<\/a> (Puru<\/a>) king Sudas<\/a>, who defeats other Vedic tribes\u2014leading to the emergence of the Kuru Kingdom<\/a>, first state level society during the Vedic period.<\/p>\n

Sanskritisation<\/span><\/h3>\n
Main article: Sanskritisation<\/a><\/div>\n

Since Vedic times, “people from many strata of society throughout the Indian subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms”, a process sometimes called Sanskritisation<\/a>. It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.<\/p>\n

Iron Age Kingdoms<\/span><\/h3>\n

The Iron Age<\/a> in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200\u00a0BCE to the 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas<\/a>, which are realms<\/a>, republics<\/a> and kingdoms<\/a> \u2014 notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of Kuru<\/a>, Panchala<\/a>, Kosala<\/a>, Videha<\/a>.<\/p>\n

The Kuru kingdom<\/a> was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1200 \u2013 800\u00a0BCE, as well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda<\/a> (the first Indian text to mention iron, as \u015by\u0101ma ayas<\/i>, literally “black metal”). The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into collections, and developed the orthodox srauta<\/a> ritual to uphold the social order.Two key figures of the Kuru state were king Parikshit<\/a> and his successor Janamejaya<\/a>, transforming this realm into the dominant political and cultural power of northern Iron Age India.When the Kuru kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the Panchala<\/a> kingdom. The archaeological Painted Grey Ware culture<\/a>, which flourished in the Haryana<\/a> and western Uttar Pradesh<\/a> regions of northern India from about 1100 to 600\u00a0BCE, is believed to correspond to the Kuru<\/a> and Panchala kingdoms.<\/p>\n

During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha<\/a> emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and Bihar<\/a> state in India); reaching its prominence under the king Janaka<\/a>, whose court provided patronage for Brahmin<\/a> sages and philosophers<\/a> such as Yajnavalkya<\/a>, Aruni<\/a>, and Gargi Vachaknavi<\/a>. The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called mahajanapadas<\/a><\/i>, all across Northern India.<\/p>\n

Sanskrit Epics<\/span><\/h3>\n
Main articles: Mahabharata<\/a> and Ramayana<\/a><\/div>\n
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Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana<\/a><\/i> and Mahabharata<\/a><\/i> are said to have their ultimate origins during this period. The Mahabharata<\/i> remains, today, the longest single poem in the world Historians formerly postulated an “epic age” as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognise that the texts (which are both familiar with each other) went through multiple stages of development over centuries. For instance, the Mahabharata<\/i> may have been based on a small-scale conflict (possibly about 1000\u00a0BCE) which was eventually “transformed into a gigantic epic war by bards and poets”. There is no conclusive proof from archaeology as to whether the specific events of the Mahabharata have any historical basis. The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400\u00a0BCE and 400\u00a0CE. Some even attempted to date the events using methods of archaeo-astronomy<\/a> which have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimated dates ranging up to mid 2nd millennium BCE<\/p>\n

“Second urbanisation” (c. 600 \u2013 c. 200 BCE)<\/span><\/h2>\n

During the time between 800 and 200\u00a0BCE the \u015arama\u1e47a<\/a><\/i> movement formed, from which originated Jainism<\/a> and Buddhism<\/a>. In the same period, the first Upanishads<\/a> were written. After 500\u00a0BCE, the so-called “Second urbanisation” started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain, especially the Central Ganges plain. The foundations for the Second Urbanisation were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the Painted Grey Ware<\/a> culture of the Ghaggar-Hakra<\/a> and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, “several dozen” PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterized as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades, albeit smaller and simpler than the elaborately fortified large cities which grew after 600 BCE in the Northern Black Polished Ware<\/a> culture. The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha<\/a> gained prominence, forming the base of the Mauryan Empire<\/a>, was a distinct cultural area, with new states arising after 500\u00a0BCE during the so-called “Second urbanisation”. It was influenced by the Vedic culture, but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region. It “was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar”. In this region, the \u015arama\u1e47ic<\/a> movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.<\/p>\n

Upanishads and \u015arama\u1e47a movements<\/span><\/h3>\n

Around 800\u00a0BCE to 400\u00a0BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads<\/a>.<\/sup> Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta<\/a> (conclusion of the Vedas<\/a>). The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.<\/p>\n

Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or \u015arama\u1e47a movements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.<\/sup> Mahavira (c. 549\u2013477\u00a0BCE), proponent of Jainism<\/a>, and Gautama Buddha<\/a> (c. 563\u2013483\u00a0BCE), founder of Buddhism<\/a> were the most prominent icons of this movement. \u015arama\u1e47a gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara<\/a>, and the concept of liberation. Buddha found a Middle Way<\/a> that ameliorated the extreme asceticism<\/a> found in the \u015arama\u1e47a<\/a><\/i> religions.<\/p>\n

Around the same time, Mahavira<\/a> (the 24th Tirthankara<\/a><\/i> in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism.<\/sup> However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras<\/i> predates all known time and scholars believe Parshvanatha<\/a> (c. 872 \u2013 c. 772\u00a0BCE), accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara<\/i>, was a historical figure. Rishabhanatha<\/a> was the 1st Tirthankara<\/i>. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras<\/i> and an ascetic order similar to the \u015arama\u1e47a<\/i> movement.<\/p>\n

Mahajanapadas<\/span><\/h3>\n

From c. 600 BCE to c. 300 BCE, withnessed the rise of Mahajanapadas, which were sixteen powerful and vast kingdoms<\/a> and oligarchic<\/a> republics<\/a>. These Mahajanapadas evolved and flourished in a belt stretching from Gandhara<\/a> in the northwest to Bengal<\/a> in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent<\/a> and included parts of the trans-Vindhyan<\/a> region.<\/sup> Ancient Buddhist texts<\/a>, like the Anguttara Nikaya<\/a><\/i>, make frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics\u2014Anga<\/a>, Assaka<\/a>, Avanti<\/a>, Chedi<\/a>, Gandhara<\/a>, Kashi<\/a>, Kamboja<\/a>, Kosala<\/a>, Kuru<\/a>, Magadha<\/a>, Malla<\/a>, Matsya<\/a> (or Machcha), Panchala<\/a>, Surasena<\/a>, Vriji<\/a>, and Vatsa<\/a>\u2014this period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civilisation<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present across the rest of the Indian subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected their rulers. Early “republics” or Ga\u1e47a sangha<\/a>,<\/sup> such as the Vajji<\/a> (or Vriji) confederation, centered in the city of Vaishali<\/a>, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the Licchavis<\/a>.<\/p>\n

This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the Northern Black Polished Ware<\/a> culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterized by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialized craft industries (e.g., ivory and carnelian carving), a system of weights, punch-marked coins<\/a>, and the introduction of writing in the form of Brahmi<\/a> and Kharosthi<\/a> scripts.<\/sup> The language of the gentry at that time was Sanskrit<\/a>, while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced into four major ones by 500\/400\u00a0BCE, by the time of Gautama Buddha<\/a>. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha. The life of Gautama Buddha was mainly associated with these four kingdoms.<\/sup><\/p>\n

Magadha dynasties<\/span><\/h3>\n

Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mah\u0101-Janapadas<\/a> (Sanskrit<\/a>: “Great Countries”) or kingdoms in ancient India<\/a>. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar<\/a> south of the Ganges<\/a>; its first capital was Rajagriha<\/a> (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra<\/a> (modern Patna<\/a>). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal<\/a> with the conquest of Licchavi<\/a> and Anga<\/a> respectively,<\/sup> followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain<\/a> and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana<\/a>, Mahabharata<\/a> and Puranas<\/a>. The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva-Veda<\/a> where they are found listed along with the Angas<\/a>, Gandharis<\/a>, and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism<\/a> and Buddhism, and two of India’s greatest empires, the Maurya Empire<\/a> and Gupta Empire<\/a>, originated from Magadha. These empires saw advancements in ancient India’s science, mathematics, astronomy<\/a>, religion, and philosophy and were considered the Indian “Golden Age<\/a>“. The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.<\/p>\n

The Hindu epic Mahabharata<\/i> calls Brihadratha<\/a> the first ruler of Magadha. Early sources, from the Buddhist P\u0101li Canon<\/a>, the Jain Agamas<\/a> and the Hindu Puranas<\/a>, mentions Magadha being ruled by the Haryanka dynasty<\/a> for some 200 years, c. 600\u00a0BCE \u2013 413\u00a0BCE. King Bimbisara<\/a> of the Haryanka dynasty<\/a> led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and West Bengal<\/a>. King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince Ajatashatru<\/a>, who continued the expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period, Gautama Buddha<\/a>, the founder of Buddhism<\/a>, lived much of his life in Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya<\/a>, gave his first sermon in Sarnath<\/a> and the first Buddhist council<\/a> was held in Rajgriha<\/a>. The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty<\/a>. The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda<\/a> in 345\u00a0BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas, Mahapadma and his eight sons. The Nanda Empire<\/a> extended across much of northern India.<\/p>\n

Persians and Greeks in northwest South Asia<\/span><\/h3>\n

In 530\u00a0BCE Cyrus the Great<\/a>, King of the Persian Achaemenid Empire<\/a> crossed the Hindu-Kush mountains to seek tribute from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-India region (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan). By 520\u00a0BCE, during the reign of Darius I of Persia, much of the north-western Indian subcontinent (present-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, as part of the far easternmost territories. The area remained under Persian control for two centuries. During this time India supplied mercenaries to the Persian army then fighting in Greece. Under Persian rule the famous city of Takshashila<\/a> became a centre where both Vedic and Iranian learning were mingled. Persian ascendency in North-western South Asia ended with Alexander the Great<\/a>‘s conquest of Persia in 327\u00a0BCE.<\/p>\n

By 326\u00a0BCE, Alexander the Great had conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire and had reached the northwest frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There he defeated King Porus<\/a> in the Battle of the Hydaspes<\/a> (near modern-day Jhelum<\/a>, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab<\/a>.<\/sup> Alexander’s march east put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire<\/a> of Magadha<\/a> and the Gangaridai<\/a> of Bengal<\/a>. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas River<\/a>) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus<\/a>, and after learning about the might of the Nanda Empire<\/a>, was convinced that it was better to return.<\/p>\n

The Persian and Greek invasions had repercussions in the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent. The region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian, and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism<\/a>, which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Maurya Empire<\/span><\/h3>\n
Main article: Maurya Empire<\/a><\/div>\n
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Maurya Empire<\/div>\n
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The Maurya Empire<\/a> under Ashoka the Great<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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Ashokan pillar<\/a> at Vaishali<\/a>, 3rd century BCE.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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The Maurya Empire (322\u2013185\u00a0BCE) was the first empire to unify India into one state, and was the largest on the Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the Himalayas<\/a> and to the east into what is now Assam<\/a>. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the Hindu Kush<\/a> mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya<\/a> assisted by Chanakya (Kautilya<\/a>) in Magadha<\/a> (in modern Bihar<\/a>) when he overthrew the Nanda Dynasty<\/a>.[149]<\/a><\/sup> Chandragupta’s son Bindusara<\/a> succeeded to the throne around 297\u00a0BCE. By the time he died in c. 272\u00a0BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of Kalinga<\/a> (around modern day Odisha<\/a>) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with their trade with the south.<\/sup><\/p>\n

Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka<\/a>, whose reign lasted for around 37 years until his death in about 232\u00a0BCE.<\/sup> His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260\u00a0BCE, though successful, lead to immense loss of life and misery. This filled Ashoka with remorse and lead him to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism. The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha<\/a>, was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga<\/a> to establish the Shunga Empire<\/a>.<\/p>\n

The Arthashastra<\/a><\/i> and the Edicts of Ashoka<\/a> are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware<\/a> (NBPW). The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society. However, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government. Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof. During this period, a high quality steel called Wootz steel<\/a> was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.<\/p>\n

Sangam Period<\/span><\/h3>\n

During the Sangam period Tamil<\/a> literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. During this period, three Tamil dynasties, collectively known as the Three Crowned Kings<\/a> of Tamilakam<\/a>: Chera dynasty<\/a>, Chola dynasty<\/a> and the Pandyan dynasty<\/a> ruled parts of southern India.<\/sup><\/p>\n

The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil people of this period.<\/sup> The scholars of the Sangam period rose from among the common people who sought the patronage of the Tamil Kings, but who mainly wrote about the common people and their concerns. Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins. They belonged to different faiths and professions like farmers, artisans, merchants, monks, priests and even princes and quite a few of them were even women.<\/p>\n

Around c. 300 BCE \u2013 c. 200 CE., Pathupattu<\/a>, an anthology of ten mid-length books collection, which is considered part of Sangam Literature<\/a>, were composed; the composition of eight anthologies of poetic works Ettuthogai<\/a> as well as the composition of eighteen minor poetic works Pati\u1e49e\u1e47k\u012b\u1e3bka\u1e47akku<\/a>; while Tolk\u0101ppiyam<\/a>, the earliest grammarian work in the Tamil language<\/a> was developed. Also, during Sangam period, around 1st-century CE., two of the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature<\/a> were composed. Ilango Adigal<\/a> composed Silappatikaram<\/a>, which is a non-religious work, that revolves around Kannagi<\/a>, who having lost her husband to a miscarriage of justice at the court of the Pandyan dynasty, wreaks her revenge on his kingdom,<\/sup> and Manimekalai<\/a>, composed by S\u012bthalai S\u0101ttan\u0101r<\/a>, is a sequel<\/a> to Silappatikaram<\/i>, and tells the story of the daughter of Kovalan<\/a> and Madhavi<\/a>, who became a Buddhist<\/a> Bikkuni.<\/p>\n

<\/span>Classical to early medieval periods (c. 200 BCE \u2013 c. 1200 CE)<\/span><\/h2>\n

The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the Gupta Empire<\/a> in the 6th century CE is referred to as the “Classical” period of India.<\/sup> It can be divided in various sub-periods, depending on the chosen periodisation. Classical period begins after the decline of the Maurya Empire<\/a>, and the corresponding rise of the Shunga dynasty<\/a> and Satavahana dynasty<\/a>. The Gupta Empire<\/a> (4th\u20136th century) is regarded as the “Golden Age” of Hinduism, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. Also, the Sangam literature<\/a> flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India.[14]<\/a><\/sup> During this period, India’s economy<\/a> is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world’s wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.<\/p>\n

<\/span>Early classical period (c. 200 BCE \u2013 c. 320 CE)<\/span><\/h3>\n

Shunga Empire<\/span><\/h4>\n

The Shungas originated from Magadha<\/a>, and controlled areas of the central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78\u00a0BCE. The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga<\/a>, who overthrew the last Maurya emperor<\/a>. Its capital was Pataliputra<\/a>, but later emperors, such as Bhagabhadra<\/a>, also held court at Vidisha<\/a>, modern Besnagar<\/a> in Eastern Malwa<\/a>.<\/sup><\/p>\n

Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra<\/a>. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated;[165]<\/a><\/sup> inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony.<\/sup> The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought battles with the Mahameghavahana dynasty<\/a> of Kalinga<\/a>, Satavahana dynasty<\/a> of Deccan<\/a>, the Indo-Greeks<\/a>, and possibly the Panchalas<\/a> and Mitras of Mathura<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as the Stupa at Bharhut<\/a>, and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi<\/a>. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi<\/a> and was used to write the Sanskrit language<\/a>. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronising Indian culture<\/a> at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place. This helped the empire flourish and gain power.<\/p>\n

Satavahana Empire<\/span><\/h4>\n

The \u015a\u0101tav\u0101hanas were based from Amaravati<\/a> in Andhra Pradesh<\/a> as well as Junnar<\/a> (Pune<\/a>) and Prathisthan (Paithan<\/a>) in Maharashtra<\/a>. The territory of the empire covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward. The S\u0101tav\u0101hanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty<\/a>, but declared independence with its decline.<\/p>\n

The S\u0101tav\u0101hanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which resulted in Buddhist monuments from Ellora<\/a> (a UNESCO World Heritage Site<\/a>) to Amaravati<\/a>. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain<\/a> to the southern tip of India.<\/p>\n

They had to compete with the Shunga Empire<\/a> and then the Kanva dynasty<\/a> of Magadha<\/a> to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect large part of India against foreign invaders like the Sakas<\/a>, Yavanas<\/a> and Pahlavas<\/a>. In particular, their struggles with the Western Kshatrapas<\/a> went on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty Gautamiputra Satakarni<\/a> and Sri Yajna S\u0101takarni<\/a> were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas<\/a> and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE the empire was split into smaller states.<\/p>\n

Northwestern kingdoms and hybrid cultures<\/span><\/h4>\n

The Northwestern kingdoms and hybrid cultures of the Indian subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks<\/i>, the Indo-Scythians<\/i>, the Indo-Parthians<\/i>, and the Indo-Sassinids<\/i>.<\/p>\n